African Christian theology has many tasks
today. This is evident both from a reading of the history of African christian
theology and from the wide variety of current understandings of its nature and
task. Some theologians today contend
that the task of African theologian is to provide a clear and comprehensive
description of the African Christian faith. Other theologians emphasize the
importance of translating faith into terms that intelligible to the African
cultures. For others, African christian
theology must be defined as thinking about important issues from the
perspective of the faith of African Christians. And still others insist that
theology must be reflexion on the praxis of Christian faith within an oppressed
community.
Therefore this paper seeks to
provide briefly some definitions, different approaches to contextualization as a
process of theologization, the history of Christianity in Africa. We will
proceed to explore the need for an African theology, its models and how it is
taught to African Christians; the problems confronting African Christians today
throuh different cultural values. We will conclude with the general guidelines
on formulating the tasks of African Christian theologians.
Introduction
The last decades have seen a flood of
materials on African Christian theology. It has generally been assumed that
there are three major theological
currents that have emerged in Africa in the last two decades: inculturation
theology, liberation theology and black theology. But the theological
and ecclesiastical landscape has changed in the last decades. The existence and
nature of so-called “African theology” in Africa is no longer clear. Instead,
the theology of the mainline churches in Africa has moved beyond its missionary
origins.
It seems
urgent for African Christians to `own' their theological reflection, rather
than borrow it from others. This means taking seriously their African heritage.
This requires the theological quest in the broader context of political,
educational, literary, and religious factors in Africa. But, it is however not
easy to determine exactly what African Theology is. In the response to the
question on this subject, we would like to understand the various possible ways
of definitions attributed to the “African theology”.
Perceptions of “African
theology”
What is African theology? African
theology refers to a particular school of African theologians who have
attempted to articulate Christian theology from the perspective of the African
cultural context. Although there are very old Christian traditions on the
continent, in the last centuries Christianity in Africa has been determined to
a large extent by western forms of Christianity, brought by colonization and
mission. This also means that the theology in Africa was strongly influenced by
Western theology. But, later, in
the field of academic reflection, African Christian theology emerged in the
1950s: it acknowledged the need to incarnate the Gospel, using the best
insights of African cultural values compatible with the gospel. In this
perspective, some African theologians try to define “African theology” . During ACC meeting in Abidjan, some African
theologians claimed that: "By African Theology we mean a theology which is
based on the Biblical faith and speaks to the African 'soul' (or is relevant to
Africa). It is expressed in categories of thought which arise out of the
philosophy of the African people.[1]" John Mbiti wrote this : “"I will use the
term 'African Theology' without apology or embarrassment, to mean theological
reflection and expression by African Christians[2]".
For Muzorewa, after looking at these definitions, concludes: "All these definitions
attempt to respond to a mandate to construct a biblically-based and relevant
theology that speaks to the spiritual needs of the African people. The
implication is obvious. Imported theologies did not touch the hearts of the African
believers because they were couched in a religious language foreign to them: hence
the quest for a relevant African theology. Furthermore, the cultural factor
means that it is best that only African theologians undertake the task.[3]”
This changed
mid-20th century when African Theology as a theological discipline came into
being. This movement began to protest against negative colonial and missionary
interpretations of the religion and culture in Africa. Realizing that theology
is a contextual phenomenon, African Christians begun to read the Scriptures
using their own cultural lens, which of course resulted in some interpretations
that did not always agree with how Western theology interpreted things. African
theology is engaged to shape Christianity in an African way by adapting and
using African concepts and ideas. Representatives are scholars such as Idowu
and Mbiti, who gave an analysis and interpretation of the African traditional
religion and point to its relation to the Christian faith.
The evidence
shows that there are currently at least four basic types of African Christian
theology today: inculturation theology,
liberation theology, Reconstruction African theology and prosperity theology. On the other hand, the Churches of God in Africa have grown significantly
in number. The pastoral zeal of their leaders and the piety and activism of
their members have prompted them to react in a faith-inspired way to the
profound social and political changes which characterize modern post-colonial
Africa.
It is within the framework
of this general orientation that in African Christian theology, attempts are made to reconceptualise the
Christian faith adequately in response to the demands of specifically African
contexts and experiences. In order to arrive at such a contextual
conceptualisation, African theology has had to develop its own specifically
African criteria for theological constructs. Such criteria emerge (often
implicitly) from the ways in which African theologians argue for the inadequacy
of traditional Western theology, and from the innovative proposals which they
themselves put forward as alternatives. The African Christians try to
"own" their theological reflection. rather than to borrow it from
others. This means taking seriously their African heritage. It examines the
theological quest in the broader context of political. educational, literary, and
religious matters. According to Mbiti, the chief yardstick for determining the
validity of any Christian theology purporting to be African was its 'Biblical
basis'. For him, "nothing can substitute for the Bible" As with African
Traditional Religions and other aspects of African culture, the Bible has
enjoyed a respected status and place in African theology. "Any viable
theology must and should have a biblical basis", declared Mbiti, more than
a decade ago. Similarly, Fashole Luke declared that "the Bible is the
basic and primary source for the development of African Christian
Theology". To underscore the significance of the Bible in the construction
of African theology, Mbiti also says: “Nothing can substitute for the Bible.
However much African cultural-religious background may be close to the biblical
world, we have to guard against references like "the hitherto unwritten
African Old Testament" or sentiments that see final revelation of God in
the African religious heritage”.
Four basic types of African Christian theology
Inculturation Theology
. The first and the oldest of these is African
inculturation theology, simply referred to as African theology. Briefly stated,
this theology is an attempt to give African expression to the Christian faith
within a theological framework. It involves a conscious engagement of European
Christian thinking and African religious thought in serious dialogue for the purpose
of integrating Christianity into the life and culture of African people.
Furthermore, inculturation theology is a form of
contextualization. The context into which the Gospel is placed in this case is
usually the traditional African culture. The non-formal inculturation of the
Gospel in the African context is as old as the African church. The preaching
and praying and singing of African Christians throughout the history of the
African church are forms of the inculturation of the Gospel. Often these forms
of inculturation are in the local African language. That is why, Anglican priest
John Samuel Mbiti rightly states that “aided by the biblical revelation and
faith in Jesus Christ,” Africans built their approach to Christianity on a
foundation that already existed in traditional African religions. However,
African cultures that have adopted Christianity view religious practice and
salvation quite differently from European cultures. Mbiti holds that a
respectful understanding of the differences can help to ensure the viability of
the Christian church in Africa.
But the formal
inculturation of the Gospel into the African context began in the middle of the
twentieth century. “The real starting-point of African theology came from a
European Franciscan missionary in the Belgian Congo, Placide Tempels[4].”
In 1945 his Bantu Philosophy was published in French. But “the first
African who can be called an African theologian was Vincent Mulago, a Catholic
priest from the then Belgian Congo[5].”
The year 1956 saw the publication of his Ph.D. thesis in French on the “Bantu
Vital Union.” In the same year Alexis Kagame published his “The Bantu-Rwandan
Philosophy” in French. That year also saw the publication of a collection of
articles under the title Des Prêtres Noirs s’interrogent, or “Black
Priests Ask.” Formal African inculturation theology began in Francophone
Africa. But Anglophone Africa soon followed suit. The 1960s saw a flood of
materials on African Christian theology, both in the French and English
languages (European languages!) and both by Roman Catholics and Protestants. In
1969 the All-Africa Conference of Churches in Abidjan said that “African
Theology is ‘a theology based on the Biblical faith of Africans, and which
speaks to the African language.
The
inculturation of the Gospel was done to make the Gospel relevant to the African
situation. In 1983, Osadolor Imasogie wrote, “Christianity, for many Africans,
remains a foreign religion. . . . It is only when incarnation takes place that
Christianity ceases to be a foreign religion[6].”
Even Byang Kato said, “Contextualize without compromise.[7]”
But the results of this inculturation exercise have been mixed. At times the
result has been pure syncretism or a return to African traditional religion.
Gabriel Setiloane said that “we have learnt nothing new about religion from the
missionaries. . . . But we Africans are bringing something to Christianity: a
view of Divinity much higher, deeper, and all-pervasive.[8]”
Bolaji Idowu concluded his book on African Traditional Religion by
praising a “faithful remnant whose loyalty to the religion of their forbears
will continue steadfast.[9]”
Unfortunately,
the African culture
is changing rapidly. The African culture is becoming more urbanized and
westernized. Many of our young people are far removed from the traditional
African religion. It seems that inculturation theology is neglecting the
pressing social issues in our society.
Liberation
theology
The second is African liberation theology,
which, though a late starter, having appeared only about a decade ago, is
becoming very popular in most parts of Africa. There are three subcurrents in
this theology. One is based on the indigenous socioeconomic system, the second
takes after the Latin American model, and the third involves a combination of
elements from both approaches. They seek genuine human promotion in the context
of the poverty and political powerlessness of Africa, and take the form of
Christian reflection within the context. Like black theologians, the
liberationists believe that the gospel has a liberating message for Africans in their state of poverty, oppression, and
exploitation[10]. Though young, these theologies unquestionably
excel in terms of output.
Instead of focusing on the traditional
African culture, liberation theology is passionately concerned with rectifying
the glaring injustices in our society. Liberation theology began in this
continent in South Africa, taking the form of Black Theology. Alan Boesak and
Desmond Tutu are two early representatives of South African Black Theology.
In the 1970s Black Theology came to South
Africa. In 1972 Essays on Black Theology was published in
Johannesburg but was banned by the government before it reached the bookstores[11]. In the 1970s Desmond
Tutu and Allan Boesak were leaders of the Black Theology school of thought. But
John Mbiti accuses Black Theology of reductionism. He wrote, “What I view as an
excessive preoccupation with liberation may well be the chief limitation of
Black Theology. . . . Black Theology cannot and will not become African
Theology. . . . Black Theology hardly knows the situation of Christian living
in Africa, and therefore its direct relevance for Africa is either nonexistent
or only accidental. . . . African Theology is concerned with many more issues,
including all the classical theological themes, plus localized topics[12].
In the subsequent years, liberation
theology moved beyond racial issues. Socioeconomic liberation has become a
major concern of liberation theology. Allan Boesak even accuses James Cone of
reducing liberation theology to the racial issue. Instead, Black Theology
should focus on total liberation. “It focuses on the dependency of the
oppressed and their liberation from dependency in all its dimensions—psychological,
cultural, political, economical, and theological.[13]”.
For Bénézet Bujo the main problem is “the
mass poverty of Africa.” Although some church leaders have spoken out on behalf
of the poor, “it must be said that the church of Africa has been a silent
church.[14]”. Jean-Marc Éla supports Bujo’s call for economic
liberation[15]. There are other forms of
liberation theology in Africa. Feminist theology is an example. Mercy Oduyoye,
for example, focuses on the unique situation of women in Africa, including their
oppression[16].
Liberation theology is a theological
response to the problems of poverty and injustice in our society. Liberation
theology is a cry for justice. Liberation theology stands in the tradition of
the Old Testament prophets and of Jesus Christ himself. Unfortunately,
liberation theology has often been one-sided.
We conclude that African liberation
theology is a contextualization of the Gospel into the context of injustice and
poverty within Africa. It is a cry for justice in our unjust world. We must recognize
the presence of massive corruption and injustice in many Christian countries
and states on this continent. We desperately need justice in Africa. But this
should not be done to the neglect of the liberation of the individual from the
guilt and effects of sin.
Reconstruction theology
Reconstruction
theology in Africa has been the latest theological project coming out of
Africa, beginning in 1990 it has gradually established itself and from 2003 a
number of publications have come out on the subject. Since
the early 1990s theologians have been looking for new ways to interpret the
gospel in Africa, in light of the changing circumstances in the continent.
Prominent among the themes that have been suggested is the “Reconstruction
Paradigma”. As Dr. Jessy N. K. Mugambi of the University of Nairobi says, this
interpretation seeks to elaborate from the scriptures the aspects that portray
God and his people re-creating a new world order. Reconstruction Theology then
offers the Christian basis for recreating anew the African social economic
reality from a scriptural perspective.
Reconstruction
theologians however approach pertinent issues, such as food crisis, child
abuse, the AIDS pandemic and poverty in a unique and inspiring way. On the food
crisis they use the Biblical basis of passages where God feeds his people in
the Old and New Testaments as a proof that God wants people to have enough to
feed on. While the Israelites were in the Desert, God gave them enough to eat
until there was some left over. The same experience is repeated with Jesus and
His disciples, where out of only five loaves and two fish, there was a total of
12 baskets of left over after the disciples had had to their satisfaction. Mugambi suggested that African Christianity should
shift her theological gear from the paradigm of liberation to that of
reconstruction. He suggested that:
Reconstruction
is the new priority for African nations in the 1990s.The churches and their
theologians will need to respond to this new priority in relevant fashion, to
facilitate this process of reconstruction. The process will require
considerable efforts of reconciliation and confidence-building. It will also
require reorientationand retraining [17]..
Thus, Mugambi
contended that, in the New World Order,ii the figure of Nehemiah, unlike that
of Moses, gives us the mirror through which we are enabled to spot our mission
to remake Africa out of the ruins of the wars –“against racism, colonial
domination and ideological branding[18]”.
He further contended that the shift from liberation to reconstruction which, to
him, began in the 1990s, and involves discerning alternative social structures,
symbols, rituals, myths and interpretations of Africa’s social reality by
Africans themselves, “irrespective of what others have to say about the
continent and its people[19]”
(Mugambi 1995:40). The resources for this re-interpretation, he argued, “are
multi-disciplinary analyses involving social scientists, philosophers, creative
writers and artists, biological and physical scientists[20]”
(Mugambi 1995:40).
But, A
Kenyan theologian, Joseph Wandera, was critical of Jesse Mugambi’s work. He
said:
There is still so much deconstruction to be done before reconstruction
can start. There is a saying among the Africans that ‘we should chase away the
wild cat before we begin to warn the chicken against wandering carelessly’.
Africa still suffers from marginalisation of all kinds, including its theology[21].
Anyway, these Reconstruction theologians do recognize the need
to include findings and expert help from other academic disciplines in solving
the numerous African problems. Indeed it is this willingness to dialogue and
work with other African experts, that these theologians usher in hope for a
theology that can truly work for human development. Important questions
relating to how the barriers of language and content of the various disciplines
will be broken need to be answered.
Prosperity Theology
Prosperity theology is a major African
“Christian” theology that is usually neglected in the academic textbooks. Often
Prosperity theology is joined together with African evangelicalism[22].
Since Prosperity theology is so dominant in Africa, it needs to be treated as a
separate African Christian theology. It is defined as the teaching that believers have a right to the
blessings of health and wealth and that they can obtain these blessings through
positive confessions of faith and the “sowing of seeds” through the faithful
payments of tithes and offerings.
The context of this contextualized theology
is again the modern African context. The context is the contemporary—and often
urban—Africa with its social and economic problems like poverty, unemployment,
school fees and barrenness.
Prosperity theology holds to some of the same
presuppositions as African evangelicalism. It believes in the power of prayer
and the possibility of miracles. It believes in the power of Jesus to meet the
daily needs of individuals. It also believes in the power of Jesus to overcome
evil spiritual powers.
But Prosperity theology differs
significantly from African evangelicalism. Prosperity theology assumes that
every Christian has a right to be prosperous. Prosperity theology assumes that
God will make every Christian prosperous if the believer does the right things.33
